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专家:论作为核心价值的民主对深化改革的意义
2016-11-04 20:25:21 《中共宁波市委党校学报》 作者:顾肃
因此,民主需要尽量扩大不同意见的范围,使之得到充分表达,以此作为正确的政治决定作出的前提。正如胡克指出的:“一个民主的社会是政府依靠被统治者自由地表示同意的一种社会。”这与洛克关于统治者的合法性建立在被统治者同意的基础之上的学说是一脉相承的。被统治者自由表达的同意,即意味着不以强制来打压或影响被统治者表明其意见。政府官员需要定期征得公民的同意,当人们以选票表示了不认可时,政府就必须更迭,撤换负责长官。
民主制度经历了发展的过程,积累了一些经验上可检验的特征。尤其是在20世纪世界政治发展过程中,人们通常认为民主至少具有三大经验特征:一、定期举行公共权力机构负责人的选举,其结果可实质性(而不是表面上)改变政策及其制订者;二、采用普选方式,即公民一人一票进行的直接选举;三、保障对选举过程具有实质意义的公民自由权利。这三者缺一不可。
将权力交给人民的最重要的依据是,政府公共权力不应当是少数个人或集团的私产,它在本质上属于人民全体,因而由人民拥有权力实行自我治理便是天经地义的。公民在政治权利面前是平等的,而且从心理上来说,当公民觉得自己的确参与了政治决策的过程时,他才有主人的感觉,对于社会的责任心和心理上的满足程度也最大。英国哲学家密尔既从结果论来论述民主对于促进社会福祉、促成合理的公共决定的意义,也强调公民个人参与民主的过程可发展其智慧和道德能力,而在其他政府形式中,公民或被统治者总是被动和惰性的。他强调,民主制度鼓励人们理解问题,发展并表达其观点,通过政治参与来满足其欲求。而在专制制度下,公民是精英统治者的被动接受者。密尔坚持认为,那些看重个人发展的人必定重视最能促进这种发展的政府形式,这就是民主。
民主思想观念在西方和中国均经历了曲折的发展历程。虽然民主的主要思想来自西方,但中国的传统中并不是完全没有民主的因素。中国最早文献中记载的民主,主要是作民之主的意思。如《尚书·多方》有语:“天惟时求民主,乃大降显休命于成汤”,“简代夏作民主”。但在古代民本思想中,也包含了民主的思想成分。如《尚书·皋陶谟》中提出:“民惟邦本,本固邦宁。”孟子曰:“民为贵,社稷次之,君为轻。是故得乎丘民而为天子,得乎天子为诸侯,得乎诸侯为大夫。”(《孟子·尽心下》)这里所论述的还不是真正的民主制度即由民作主的制度,而是为民作主,但其民本的思想已经包含了政权的合法性必须建立在人民的同意基础上这一基本原理,统治者必须顾及人民的意愿,不可一意孤行。在西方,最早出现民主一词的是古希腊希罗多德的《历史》一书,它由“人民”和“统治”两词构成,指人民的统治或权力。近代以来,资产阶级革命的思想家致力于论证民主制度的重要性,用以反对封建专制制度。启蒙思想家们强调古希腊的民主含义,卢梭认为,民主就是把权力“置于总意志的最高指导之下”。密尔则主张,最好的民主形式是代议制政府。资产阶级民主制度在其统治的范围内实现了有限的民主,通过代议制部分地表达民众的要求,选择其政府领导者,实现其区别于封建专制制度的民主统治。马克思在批判地继承资产阶级民主理论的基础上,总结出民主首先表现为国家形态,同时也体现在体制、原则和价值观等方面。马克思指出,民主作为一种国家形态和基本制度,其特点在于人民是国家的主体,“在民主制中,国家制度本身就是一个规定,即人民的自我规定”,而“国家制度无论如何只是人民存在的环节。”
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