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火器终结中世纪:蒙古人当了技术推广员
2016-05-13 12:08:56 人民网-国家人文历史
火器在另一个方向上的传播对世界历史显得更为重要,这就是连接中国与地中海世界的(陆上及海上)丝绸之路。中东、北非本来出产硫黄,但是不知道使用硝,有关硝的知识是从中国传去的,8世纪时中国的炼丹术沿着丝绸之路传入阿拉伯世界。对阿拉伯国家而言,硝是中国的特产,以至硝刚刚进入阿拉伯国家后,被阿拉伯人称为“中国雪(thalj al-sin)”,被波斯人称为“中国盐”。因为硝颜色如雪,味咸如盐。
起初,硝在阿拉伯国家与中国一样用于医药和炼丹术。将硝用于燃爆的技术则是由中国东南沿海经过海上丝绸之路传入中东的。因为当时南宋的帆船装备自卫火器,往返于阿拉伯半岛的亚丁和泉州之间,阿拉伯侨民也分布在泉州和杭州等地,他们是传播新发明最好的中介。根据1249年阿拉伯文献的记载,埃及阿尤布朝的国务大臣奥姆莱主持了伊斯兰国家第一次将硝用于配制火药、制造火器的初步试验。
令阿拉伯人进一步接触到火药的是蒙古军的第三次西征,忽必烈的弟弟旭烈兀在1252年率领12万大军出征西亚,在他的大军里就有一支汉人组成的砲手、弩手、火焰喷射手千人队。旭烈兀的第一个目标是猖獗达二百年之久的恐怖主义集团——“只问目的,不择手段,滥用匕首,把暗杀变成一种艺术”的“山中老人”(伊斯兰教什叶派伊斯玛仪派的分支尼扎里耶派),这个可怕教派的据点设在里海南岸厄尔布尔士山脉中,山势陡峭,高峰连绵,海拔多在3000米以上,“在十二世纪曾经费尽了塞尔柱王朝算端们的一切努力,使算端国和哈里发教廷为之震慑”,但是却无法阻止拥有火器的蒙古大军。穆斯林史家记载,蒙军所用的火器称为“Vases sernplis naphte”,即火药罐或罐装火药,与“震天雷”属同一类爆炸性火器。在其猛烈攻击下,1256年“山中老人”终于被旭烈兀彻底铲除,“这是蒙古人对于当时的治安和文明带来的一种极大的贡献”。两年后,蒙古军又在砲石、火药箭等各种火器帮助下攻克巴格达,随后便在阿拔斯王朝的废墟上建立了蒙古人的伊利汗国。
随着伊利汗国的建立,各种火器也传入了阿拉伯国家。从哈桑?拉曼在1285年到1295年间写作的《马术和军械》里可以得知,火药不但源于中国,就连烟火、火器都是从中国传入的。中国的火箭和火枪也成为阿拉伯国家最早的火器。在《马术和军械》中有一种“契丹火枪”,枪头叫作“契丹火箭”,这是采用金朝飞火枪的方法,而用火箭作为燃烧体。而在14世纪初期的另一本阿拉伯军书《为安拉而战》中,记载有用于陆地作战的火枪和水战中的火箭,都叫“契丹火箭”。这是在一根长形契丹火箭上,装上长而尖的头,以备水战,在战斗中,将火箭发射向敌船,“箭头嵌入船板,便延烧以致无法扑救”。 到了14世纪,埃及马穆鲁克的军队开始把中国竹制的管形射击火器突火铳发展为木质管形射击火器“马达发(Madfa)”,使火器的发展进入新的阶段。
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