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火器终结中世纪:蒙古人当了技术推广员

2016-05-13 12:08:56   人民网-国家人文历史

虽然十字弓和长弓杀伤力强,但要有效地使用十字弓(和长弓),就得经过几个月时间的练习,而要真正精通则需数年时间的刻苦训练。但火枪的使用就比较简便,步兵经过短时间的训练便可很快掌握。

中世纪的终结者

随后,阿拉伯国家又成为火药和火器传入欧洲的媒介。虽然早在1240年,蒙古人就在西征时就将火器广泛用于欧洲战场,但是当时的中世纪欧洲人尚无力仿制这些武器,他们只是将这些喷火并且发出巨响的火器当作“魔法”。直到13世纪下半期,欧洲的知识分子才从阿拉伯文书籍里获得火药知识,又过了半个世纪,在14世纪上半期,欧洲终于在与阿拉伯人的战争中获得了火器。确如文艺复兴时期的英国学者弗兰西斯·培根所说,“任何一个帝国、教派或名人的力量,都无法比这些发明更能支配和影响人类生活”。

当时的伊比利亚半岛,是基督教与伊斯兰教两大势力争夺的焦点。自从8世纪摩尔人入侵以来,基督徒的“收复失地运动”已经断断续续的进行了数个世纪。阿拉伯人在1325年、1326年、1331年进攻西班牙的基督教政权时,都使用了“马达法”等火器。在战争中落到基督徒手里的“马达法”随即被欧洲人仿制成欧洲最早的手持枪(Handgun),又称火门枪(Cannon lock),最后发展成为火绳枪。不过,这些早期的单兵火器命中率低,射程短,射击速率慢而且使用起来极不灵便,其威力其实逊于欧洲人原有冷兵器。如果以火绳枪的理论杀伤指数为10的话,十字弓就是33,而著名的英格兰长弓可以达到36,正是出于这个原因,法国在1566年才淘汰了十字弓,而留恋长弓带来的一次次辉煌胜利的英格兰则晚至1596年才正式将火枪作为步兵武器。虽然十字弓和长弓杀伤力强,但要有效地使用十字弓(和长弓),就得经过几个月时间的练习,而要真正精通则需数年时间的刻苦训练。但火枪的使用就比较简便,步兵经过短时间的训练便可很快掌握。

更重要的是,“火药把骑士阶层炸得粉碎”。1350年左右,德国出现了铜锡合金的火炮,射程可以达到数百米。欧洲第一场由火炮发挥关键作用的战争发生在低地国家,是在1382年5月3日的佛兰德尔手工业城市反对封建领主佛兰德尔伯爵的贝弗豪得威尔(Beverhoudsvel)战斗中。火药和大炮的出现摧毁了贵族赖以保持其独立地位的中世纪城堡,因为这些火炮“造价昂贵,只有自由城市和拥有巨大税收来源的君主才能获得”,而火器的发展,又成为市民阶级同封建贵族斗争的武器。所以恩格斯认为:“火器一开始就是城市和以城市为依靠的新兴君主政体反对封建贵族的武器。以前一直攻不破的贵族城堡的石墙抵挡不住市民的大炮;市民的枪弹射穿了骑士的盔甲。贵族的统治跟身穿铠甲的贵族骑兵队同归于尽了。”

到下一个世纪,1453年的春天,奥斯曼军队在围攻千年古都君士坦丁堡时祭出了“恐怖而非凡的怪兽”——乌尔班大炮。该炮长达17英尺(约合5.18米),重17吨,炮筒厚达8英寸(约20厘米),口径则高达30英寸(约合762毫米),足以容纳一位成人,所用花岗岩炮弹重达1500磅(约680公斤),是那个时代威力最大的火器。“有时炮弹摧毁了整段的城墙,有时候是城墙的一部分,有时是一座塔楼,或一段胸墙——没有哪座城墙足够坚固,可以抵御这样迅雷不及掩耳的攻击。”虽然这门巨炮过度使用后在4月20日炸膛,但在一个多月后的5月29日,土耳其炮兵的另一门重炮仍炸开了君士坦丁堡的城门,奥斯曼士兵蜂拥而入,守军的抵抗崩溃了,星月旗从此飘扬在了拜占庭的上空。这座曾经无数次抵御了异族入侵的伟大城市,最终屈服于新兴的火器。但正是君士坦丁堡的陷落,宣告了中世纪的结束。

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