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火器终结中世纪:蒙古人当了技术推广员
2016-05-13 12:08:56 人民网-国家人文历史
宋朝的火药兵器,大致可分为燃烧性、爆炸性和管形火器三类。其中前两类都是需要与抛射类的弓弩或抛石机相结合,利用它们抛射出去或直接烧伤或爆炸打击敌人。而管形火器,就更接近现代火器了。在火器史,管形火器的问世,是一大进步,后世的枪炮即由管形火器逐渐演变发展而成的。最早见于史书记载的管形火器,是南宋绍兴二年(1132年)陈规守德安(今湖北安陆)时使用的长竹竿火枪,以竹为筒,内装火药,“皆用两人共持一条”,临阵点燃,喷射火焰,焚毁了敌人(一支流寇武装)的攻城器械“天桥”;这是史上最早的管形喷射火器,它能使点燃的火药定向集中喷射火焰。一个世纪后的南宋开庆元年(1259年),寿春府(今安徽寿县)又进一步创制出最早的管形射击火器——突火枪,其“以钜竹为筒,内安子窠,如烧放,焰绝然后子窠发出,如炮声,远闻百五十余步”。这是人类第一次使用化学能发射弹丸的成功尝试(但很难再装填进行二次攻击),为日后发明金属管形射击火器解决了一个重大技术问题。
各式各样的火器,已在宋军的装备中占有了一席之地。《续资治通鉴长编》记载,北宋神宗时,为布防熙州、河州,宋廷一次就由开封府送去包括神臂火箭十万支、火药弓箭二万支、火药火炮箭二千支在内的大批火器,占所有弓弩箭的1/10以上。到了南宋中、后期,随着战事的愈益吃紧,火药兵器在兵器中所占比重更大。嘉定十四年(1221年),为抵御金军围攻,蕲州部署守城的兵器,单火药兵器就有“弩火药箭七千只、弓火药箭一万只,蒺藜火炮共三千只、皮大炮二万只”,仅“火药箭”在总箭数中的比例已经上升到近1/6。以蕲州并非当时的头等边防重镇,便已配备有如此数量的火药兵器,足见此类兵器在宋军中的应用已相当广泛。
与此同时,尽管宋朝处心积虑防止火器落到与之对峙的北方少数民族政权手中,为此先后采取技术封锁与原料(硫黄、焰硝)垄断的办法,仍未能避免辽、西夏、金以及蒙古相继掌握火器技术。早在宋朝初年,辽人就想方设法谋取宋火药制造技术,得手后则于“燕京日阅火炮”。金军不但以宋军的火球为模式,创制了铁壳火球“铁火砲”,而且还创制了单兵使用的竹制飞火枪。至于蒙元统治者,也从金人手里掌握了制作和使用火器的技术,更是在南宋发明的突火枪和火筒的基础上,在火药性能进一步改良的前提下,研制了世界历史上第一代金属管形火器——火铳。因此,尽管宋王朝在火器应用上赢得了先机,却并没能切实把握,反令火药的技术迅速扩散到整个东亚世界,战争的面貌由此大变。
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