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从许多方面来看,犹太人的地位在罗马帝国早期的几百年里,要比在帝国晚期衰落及中世纪欧洲兴起的时候还要好些。早期罗马帝国是个多神论和多元化的庞然大物,在相对宽容的帝国内部,各种各样的种族和宗教群体能够相安共处,犹太人只是其中一分子而已。具有讽刺意味的是,给罗马帝国乃至整个西方文明注入一个重大褊狭因素的,正是犹太–基督教的神学思想。在古罗马,许多宗教派别为表示相互敬重而举行仪式或纪念活动是常见的事,但犹太人和基督徒谁也不参加这类活动。对他们来说,这样做就意味着“偶像崇拜”。二者也都曾因政治上的分裂态度和行为而遭到罗马帝国当局的惩罚,但这种惩罚并非后来盛行于中世纪和现代欧洲的那种意义上的宗教迫害。
基督教最终大获全胜,成了罗马帝国的国教。随之而来的宗教偏执就表现为强迫人们皈依基督教,惩罚异端分子和不承认基督教为唯一正确信仰的怀疑分子。在罗马帝国后期的宗教争议中,基督徒之间相互残杀所造成的死亡人数,大大超过了帝国前期多神论时代因信仰而被处死的人数。犹太人也在这种宗教斗争的大批受害者之列。随着统一的基督教义—罗马天主教—在西方牢固地确立起来,犹太人在信仰上作为仅存的主要少数派,已经备受孤立了。有关“偶像崇拜”的神学观念,使基督徒不愿和多神论者妥协。这同一观念也使犹太人不愿和基督徒妥协,反之亦然。
犹太人在宗教上持不同见解,而且态度之严肃在那个时代实在是罕见的。问题还不单如此。因为他们是在自己的祖国被侵占之后而沦落他乡的,到哪个国家他们都是异族,带着自己的文化,讲不同的语言,穿不同的衣服,而且一般都住在单独的村社或城镇的一角。一言以蔽之,他们是身上贴了标签的人,周围那些无知而迷信的居民无论卷入什么样的激情或恐惧之中,一遇风吹草动,便自然而然地把犹太人当成攻击的靶子。更有甚者,通常被剥夺了拥有土地和进行其他许多经济活动权利的犹太人,往往以充当中间人为业,譬如小商人和放债者,而从事这种行业的人,几乎在普天下到处都是不受欢迎的人。在中间人行当比较突出的少数种族的地方—比如中国人在东南亚,东印度人在乌干达,或伊博人在尼日利亚。这个少数种族就会招致与之打交道的当地民众的痛恨。犹太人就是从事这种行业的少数种族的典型例子。
犹太人得到的些许保护,实际上是上流人士(贵族、国王和教皇)赋予的。他们这样做,与其说是出于人道主义考虑或正义感,不如说是为了自身的利益。因为犹太人身怀有用的技艺,而且时常也很富有。在许多地方,他们干脆用金钱在当权人物的领地之内买下居住的特权。在统治集团内部,政治气候一有变化,或遇上某个反复无常的当权者,犹太人花血本买来的安宁随时都可能结束。即使他们在某个地方生活了好几代人的时间,甚至几个世纪的时间,犹太人也很少是当地社会的一个有机组成部分。和当地人通婚的情形也非常罕见。
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