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火器终结中世纪:蒙古人当了技术推广员

2016-05-13 12:08:56   人民网-国家人文历史

原载于《国家人文历史》2016年第八期,未经授权请勿转载

“外国用火药制造子弹御敌,中国却用它做爆竹敬神;外国用罗盘针航海,中国却用它看风水;外国用鸦片医病,中国却拿来当饭吃。同是一种东西,而中外用法之不同有如此,盖不但电气而已。”

——1933年2月26日《申报·自由谈》,《电的利弊》,鲁迅(署名何家干)

炼丹术的副产品

鲁迅先生写作这段话的本意,大约是要讽刺积贫积弱的封建中国对科技利用的边缘化:祖先的发明未能用于推动社会进步和民生福祉。当时船坚炮利的西方殖民者“在东方架起几门大炮就可以征服一个国家、一个民族”,这与中国作为火药发明国之间当然是个巨大的反差,不过,火药在中国历史上的地位绝非仅仅是用来做“爆竹敬神”而已,先人在发明火药之后同样也是殚精竭虑将其应用于军事领域的,于是才有了“火器”。

作为中国“四大发明”之一的火药,它的出现却与往往被视为封建迷信活动的中国传统炼丹术有莫大的关系。为了炼得长生不老的仙丹,炼丹家们往往苦心孤诣设计出各种药物组合(配伍),将几种甚至十几种矿物混合起来,加以火炼。三黄(雄黄、雌黄、硫黄)和硝石(硝酸钾)早在先秦就已被我国先民取得并利用作为医药,因此当西汉炼丹术肇兴之时,它们就都成为炼丹术药物中的重要成员,而它们也正是爆燃反应中的两员主角。到了唐代以后,在丹师们的丹釜中又出现了炭化的某种草木药。其本意是“伏火”,即是以火或火法来制伏药物固有的某些暴烈、不驯的性格,使之适用于炼制丹药和金银,或使炼制产品宜于服食。结果适得其反,“伏火”未成,造成失火,硝石、硫黄和木炭以一定比例混合在一起的粉状物,会剧烈燃烧,用今天的黑火药化学反应方程式来表示,就是:

2KNO3+ S + 3C =K2S + N2↑+ 3CO2 ↑

公元 808 年唐朝炼丹家清虚子在《太上圣祖金丹秘诀》中关于“伏火矾法”的记载,可能就是世界上最早关于火药制造的文字记载。

可以说,炼丹家们距离真正的发明火药其实只有一步之遥了,但这最后的门槛他们却不曾迈过去,对炼丹家而言,其兴趣只在不可能炼成的不死仙丹,而因“伏火”而造成的爆燃只是需要极力避免的意外,他们只考虑如何抑制爆燃,还没有设法扩大其爆燃作用并加以利用的念头出现。在他们的著作中甚至谆谆告诫人们,在炼丹中要防止硝、硫、炭合炼时所造成的火灾。中唐以后成书的《真元妙道要略》就警告,硝石、生者(指没有伏过火的硝石)不可合三黄合烧,如果合在一起燃烧,就会有火灾发生(“立见祸事”)。

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