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乾隆时期中国为何人口激增:雍正取消了人头税

2016-03-24 14:34:12   人民网

反向调节人口的因素

从反面来看,古代社会也有人口制约因素,但是限制人口增长的因素非常少。实际主要消极因素有三:(1)医疗条件限制,婴儿存活率低,死亡率高;(2)税赋负担沉重,尤其以人头为征税对象,多一人多一税,人口生产成本增加,时常导致溺女婴事件;(3)人口密度高,耕地稀缺。三者在历代制约人口数量的作用很大,可以说是三个主要的负调节。

税赋抑制人口的机制,来自古代独特的税赋形式。古代中国政府以人口为征税对象,称为“丁”,开征丁税。“丁”实际上不指人头,而是符合一定性别年龄条件的纳税单位。有此一税,多一人即多一负担,税赋成为人口再生产的成本,呈线性递增之势,制约人口增长。若一家一户承担不起大量生育的代价,只好选择少生,或者即便生下来,也无力抚养而饿死、病死。在旧中国,婴儿高死亡率是普遍情形,一对夫妇一生通常生育十几胎,最后存活往往只有几胎。朝廷既鼓励人口滋生,又以人头税限制滋生,客观上属于一种动力平衡。

人头税制一旦确立,客观上成为人口控制的一个负面参数,对人口控制平衡未尝不是好事。人头税对人口增长的抑制作用有多大?历史有一明证。清朝初年,朝廷为安抚异族国民实施一系列减税政策,康熙于1791年宣布“固定丁口,永不加税”的养民政策,加上雍正推行“摊丁入亩”,二者等于逐步取消人头税,并将其并入土地税。始料未及,人头税一减,百年间全国人口数量激增二倍以上,由一亿增至三亿,这也从反面说明人头税的效用。

此外,土地面积的限制对中国来说也是对人口的限制。恒定的国土面积肯定是这个民族生育梦想的最后边际。但面对这一严酷事实,古人一时看不清真相,以为天圆地方,地大物博,遂产生扩张永无止境的幻觉。

三千年来人口大趋势

以上因素综合下来,明以前各项正反因素相抵,中国人口仅以缓慢速度增加,每千年人口变动不过在千万之间,来回波动。明以前地广人稀,耕地资源尚可谓绰绰有余,不毛之地大量存在。那时,人民生活空间宽松,不比今天这般拥挤无奈。

此时,各省人均拥有耕地资源虽厚薄不匀,但最少都在人均四亩之上,多则达到几十亩。以当时的生产力来说,维持一家数口温饱,应付捐税徭役大抵无虞。各省相较之下,以福建省耕地状况相对最紧迫,境内多为丘陵、坡地和盐滩,易于灌溉的平原良田很少。闽人常道:“八山一水一分田”,耕田仅占土地面积一成。即便如此,根据明初洪武年间人口普查资料,福建人均拥有耕地仍在四亩左右,尚能维持自给自足,略感紧张。轻度紧张的结果,就是零星人群闯台湾,下南洋,走东洋,讨生活。

综观秦汉至明清人口趋势,一方面是人口在儒教价值观激励下自然增长,另一方面是在税赋、医疗以及战乱、灾荒制约下暂时减少。总的来说,人口净值呈螺旋式上升,进三步退两步,人口压力时松时紧,一切尚处于朝廷制度掌控之内,还不至于动摇古典文化制度。但是,控制是相对的,增长是绝对的。不管人口总量如何波动,大势总在增长,长此以往,总有一日它会与有限的耕地资源发生不可协调的严重冲突,人满为患。

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