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乾隆时期中国为何人口激增:雍正取消了人头税

2016-03-24 14:34:12   人民网

本文摘自《江湖中国》,于阳 著,当代中国出版社,2006.6

明以前中国社会

五千年来,古代中国一直是定耕农业国家,其重要制度譬如商礼周礼、周公制宗法、秦汉立郡县制、隋唐行均田制、明清改行混合财税制……均围绕着定耕农业而制订,一切皆以有利农耕为最高原则。

古典中国文化是定耕农业文化,农户家族是社会组织的细胞,农业是基础产业,定居是基本生活模式。围绕这一文明轴心,培育并形成价值信念、社会组织、制度体系、农业技术、宗教信仰、习俗约定、政治组织设置和行为伦理。

明朝以前的古典社会服务于建设一个封闭的、简单均一的社会,其显著特征是定居和定耕,自给自足,无为而治。在理想情形下,农民无意四处走动,对外界兴趣索然,这对于维护制度稳定有好处。此制度框架允许少量旅行者、挑贩、走亲戚,然而不允许数量大到动摇“定居”方式的根基。假如农民大批离开村庄居所开始移民,尤其非家族性的个人漂泊,必导致家族作为社会细胞的解体,古典文化制度就彻底失效。

说流动人口,必先说商人。商人天职是交换各业劳动剩余产品,重新配置生产生活资料,职业特征是走街串巷,跋山涉水。明以前商人数量不多,一方面对国民经济贡献很小,不足以补充国库税收,另一方面商人四处游走,增加不稳定因素,很难被整合进定居结构。

史料显示,从秦汉至明清两千年,尤其隋唐后一千年,社会面貌和农业生产力几乎没有明显改变。刀耕火种的农业技术,聚族而居的村社组织,以“儒、道、佛”为核心的信仰体系,中央集权的朝廷政治,基于人口和耕地的二元税制,千年以来一如既往,时间仿佛凝固,社会纹丝不动。譬如朝廷的政治中央集权、儒法典章、儒道佛信仰、人头税加土地税的两型财政、宗族社会组织、科举选仕、道德文章、人畜混力耕作、农业靠天吃饭、二十四节气,天干地支历法……长此以往,延绵不绝。

生育子嗣,是古典社会的价值核心

在现象凝固的背后,不能忽略一种视而不见却富有活力的变动因素。几千年来,它仿佛一股火山熔岩,从来没有平息,在慢慢地积聚压力,寻觅豁口。这股汹涌的熔岩,就是子嗣繁殖,是我们民族无限生育的梦想!

灿烂的儒教文明最终衰落,其原因之一是无限激励人口繁殖,农业生产上却无法供给相当的粮食,于是过剩人口犹如漫过大堤的洪水,冲垮了儒教自身的统治。儒教乃是自掘坟茔。这个过剩的人口,是近代江湖的先驱。

从古至今,人口繁衍都是中国最具活力的文化因素。历代中国天灾人祸乃是家常便饭,二十四史记载天灾年年不乏。每逢天灾人祸,兵荒马乱,必有大批平民死于屠戮或饥饿。然而,令人称奇的是,一俟太平人口数量总是迅速复原,甚至比灾难前更多。

中国人口的增长活力向来以两种因素决定,一是自然繁殖,二是儒教制度激励。在儒教制度内部,又有两重因素激励生育:第一是生育价值观,第二是家族组织细胞。生育价值观,有如“多子多福”、“香火绵延”、“人丁兴旺”、“子孙绕膝”、“不孝有三,无后为大”,修家谱、辨血脉、兴太庙、举宗祠……举凡皆奉为人生大事。家族组织细胞便是社会组织的家族化,一切以家族为根基,譬如土地权属制度、宗法制度、社区里甲制、税赋、征兵、田间生产、民间械斗,都以家庭或家族为细胞单元,这意味着家族不止是血缘组织,也是经济和社会合作组织。经济合作意味着利益,比血缘还重要,家族人口多,自然势力大,容易取得生存优势。而家族组织的增长,唯有靠生育繁殖。所以,这两个因素都刺激家族人口增长。

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