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“黑睛小眼”与“碧瞳深目”的对望

2016-08-22 11:47:26   东方早报

碧瞳深目:中国人对西洋人眼睛的描写及其历史渊源

皮列士使团的失败,并未终止葡萄牙人东来的步伐。1557年葡萄牙人入居澳门,尤其是罗明坚、利玛窦等耶稣会士先后进入中国内地传教以后,中国与欧洲的商业往来和文化交流越来越频繁。紧随葡萄牙人的脚步,从十六世纪后期开始,西班牙人、意大利人、荷兰人、英国人、法国人乃至俄国人、瑞典人等,相继出现在中国人的面前。欧洲人的外貌特征,尤其是鼻子、眼睛和头发,给中国人留下了深刻印象,因此“高鼻”、“深目”、“碧瞳”、“红毛”(专门形容荷兰人,偶尔也指英国人)等词汇,频繁地出现在中国官、私文献之中。尽管中国人也注意到欧洲人的肤色(面皙、面红白),但其关注度不及眼、鼻、发色高。

《明史·佛郎机传》代表了明代官方对葡萄牙及葡萄牙人的整体认知和评价,其在评价葡萄牙人的相貌时写道:“其人长身高鼻,猫眼鹰嘴,拳发赤须,好经商,恃强陵轹诸国,无所不往。”短短数语,包含着鲜明的审美评判:眼似猫,透露出奸猾的目光;嘴如鹰,加上高大的身体和高耸的鼻子,张扬着凶恶的气势;鬈曲的头发和发红的胡子,则显得野蛮。长成这个样子,也就难怪他们“好经商”(这在当时不是正面评价)并“恃强陵轹诸国”了。

中国人对初来葡人相貌的负面描写,是多种原因造成的:首先,客观上他们的鼻子确实高,眼睛确实深陷,目瞳颜色确实如猫睛;其次,这些外貌特征不符合当时中国人的一般审美标准(这一点后文还会讨论);第三,可能也是最重要的,就是初来葡萄牙人在东南沿海的野蛮行为,包括西芒·德·安德拉德在广东沿海的烧杀抢掠,以及十六世纪上半叶葡萄牙人亦商亦寇,导致中葡发生西草湾之战、走马溪之战、双屿之战等,都给中国人留下极坏的印象。

大航海时代葡萄牙和西班牙这两个伊比利亚半岛的天主教国家,在向海外扩张的过程中,主要依靠武力在亚洲抢占贸易口岸、控制贸易航线,在非洲掠夺资源和奴隶,在美洲则征服印第安人,强占大片领土。但显然,这一策略在中国沿海无法成功,即使1557年终于通过贿赂地方官的手段得以入居澳门,获得与中国直接贸易的机会,但澳门葡萄牙人在此后三百年间不得不表现得很温顺,以免遭到中国政府驱逐。1602年荷兰东印度公司成立后,迅即向远东拓展贸易。武力同样是荷兰东印度公司向东扩张的主要手段,但与葡萄牙人一样,他们在中国也屡遭失败,并给中国人留下了极负面的印象。

最早接触到荷兰人并留下记载的,是时任杭州知府的王临亨(1548-1601)。他于万历二十九年(1601)奉命至广东审案,根据此行所见所闻编撰成《粤剑篇》四卷,此书卷三记云:“辛丑(1601)九月间,有二夷舟至香山澳,通事者亦不知何国人,人呼之为红毛鬼。其人须发皆赤,目睛圆,长丈许。……香山澳夷虑其以互市争澳,以兵逐之。”“红毛”之名从此成为明末清初中国文献中对荷兰人的常用称呼,再后缀以“鬼”字,包含了当时中国人对荷兰人外貌的负面审美评判。或许王临亨并未直接接触到荷兰人,亦或许亲见过荷兰人而未仔细观察其眼睛,总之“目睛圆”的描述较为简略。

王临亨所记之荷兰船队,为范聂克(Jabob Von Neck, 1564-1638)所率领的荷兰“老牌公司”船队,于1598年从荷兰出发前往东印度,在攻击澳门之前,刚在香料群岛被葡萄牙人击败。万历三十一年(1603)荷兰舰队在韦麻郎(Wybrand Van Warwijck, 1566-1615)率领下再攻澳门,又遭失败,后在南洋华人李锦、潘秀等人协助下,贿赂福建税监高寀,而得占据澎湖百余日,被浯屿把总沈有容逐出。此次荷兰人再现于中国闽广沿海,被福建漳州人张燮详记于《东西洋考》卷六,其中对荷兰人相貌描述更详,云:“其人深目长鼻,毛发皆赤,故呼红毛番云。”张燮此处特别加了一个注释,引用颜师古对西域人外形的评论:“颜师古曰:西域诸戎,其形最异。今胡人青眼赤须,状类猕猴者,其种也。”其对荷兰人外貌的厌恶与贬低已显而易见。

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