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揭秘:大航海时代何人第一个促成中国的海上霸权?

2016-12-27 14:35:38   顾晓静 晓晓 武丹阳

清朝在17与18世纪曾向俄国派出三个使团,还曾向俄国试探经其境内向奥斯曼土耳其派遣使团,由此看来清朝前期对内亚方向的外交十分活跃,这和清朝闭关锁国的一般印象十分不同。就此问题请您释疑?

孔令伟:据官方文献记载,清朝曾经向俄国派出数个使团,至于非正式的交流则更多。例如清朝通过中亚其他民族与俄罗斯的沟通,由于不是官方活动,因此就没有记载在官书上。这又牵引出另一个问题:清朝是否闭关锁国?“闭关锁国”这一说法又是谁创造出来的?

其实“闭关锁国”这个说法与晚清革命有关。革命党人为了塑造清朝落后的历史形象,出于政治宣传目的,创造出这样的话语。另一方面是西方人,尤其是二十世纪初美国汉学界对清朝的研究。由于存在时代局限性,就拿美国汉学奠基者费正清来说,他在博士论文中创造了冲击回应说(impact-responsemodel),认为清朝缺少内在的动力去进行社会改革,无法自主完成现代国家建构,必须由英国人的大炮敲开中国的大门。但实际上,这种说法现在已经受到了越来越多的学者的挑战。其实透过更多的材料,尤其是透过清朝面向内亚的材料,我们可以知道清朝不仅对内亚的外交十分活跃,对内亚的商业活动、情报收集、地理知识的调查,都有过积极的作为。但这方面的相关研究还不是太多。

库伦的蒙古人交易市场

明清以来,藏传佛教在连接蒙古、新疆、青海、西藏之间的作用和地位有什么变化?通过藏传佛教,这几个区域交流的最主要物品是什么?请推荐几本相关英文论著。

孔令伟:这方面的研究可以关注耶鲁大学濮德培教授在《晚期帝制中国》(LateImperialChina)上发表的一篇关于清代准噶尔入藏熬茶的文章,里面就有提到准噶尔、西藏与清朝之间的货物流通。关于这个议题,中国和日本学者也有不少成果,值得参考。另外,去年也出版了一本文集《MuslimsinAmdoTibetanSociety:MultidisciplinaryApproaches》,讲穆斯林在安多藏区所扮演的社会角色,里面也讲到一些物质经济文化方面的交流。这本书也是比较前沿的研究成果。

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