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晚清军事变革:利益集团的互相掣肘中被拆了台

2016-04-21 13:50:27   中国青年报

但是,清廷对这些礼物不屑一顾,或者仅仅作为珍品、玩具收藏,根本没有想到其中的科技含义及军事价值,从而失去了尽早进入军事近代化历程的绝好机遇期。就像马克思后来所评价的那样:“一个人口占世界三分之一的幅员辽阔的帝国,不顾时势,仍然安于现状……极力以天朝尽善尽美的幻想来欺骗自己,这样一个帝国,最终要在一场殊死搏斗中死去。”

鸦片战争的失败没有唤醒昏昏沉睡的清王朝,使中国早期军事近代化再被延误了整整20年 1840年,中英鸦片战争爆发,东西两个帝国发生正面大碰撞,揭开了中国社会大转型的序幕。

这场战争打了两年多,英国远征军前后有两万人左右参战,清王朝却先后调集十万左右的军队参战。清军几乎每战必溃,先后有一名总督、两名提督、7名总兵以及数千名士兵死于战争。而英国远征军在鸦片战争中的死亡人数却只有约500人,其中真正阵亡人数还不足百人。

面对中英双方的巨大差距,鸦片战争对中国起到了一定的震撼作用。对于中国来说,这场战争是一块界碑,它标志着在英国大炮的逼迫下,古老的中国社会蹒跚地走入了近代。

然而,尽管历史给了中国走向世界的一个机会,但鸦片战争结束之后的清王朝统治阶级并没有真正觉醒。他们认为战争起因是外交处置不当引起的偶然事件,没有认识到这是西方列强向东方扩张的必然趋势,也没有认识到战争的失败是由双方全方位的差距造成的,而是把战争失败原因归结为“前线将领指挥不力”。

战争结束后签订的中英《南京条约》,本来极为丧权辱国,但清王朝统治阶级竟然称之为“万年和约”:一方面天真地以为签了和约就太平无事了,一方面竟然希望屈辱的条约保持万年不变。

因此,鸦片战争结束后,除了极少数人之外,清王朝自上而下继续在麻木与愚昧中昏昏沉睡,以至于晚清军事领域的真正变革,直到第二次鸦片战争后才真正开始,使中国早期军事近代化再被延误了整整20年。

近代历史学家蒋廷黻曾说:“从民族的历史看,鸦片战争的军事失败还不是民族的致命伤。失败以后,还不明了失败的理由努力改革,那才是民族的致命伤。”

军事变革从萌芽到发展均受制于“例”

“祖宗之法不可变”,守旧的中国人认为没有变革的必要 鸦片战争的失败促使一些中国爱国知识分子在比较中思考。当时,以林则徐、魏源等人为代表的晚清军事变革先行者,通过对西方的了解和对中国军事落后的反思,提出了“师夷长技以制夷”的军事变革思想和“器良、技熟、胆壮、心齐”的建军思想,这标志晚清开始了近代军事变革的艰苦跋涉。

但是,近代中国是被大炮轰出古代社会,很不情愿地踏上近代化历程的。晚清军事变革在早期很难发育起来,此中原因非常复杂。但是有一点值得注意,那就是要让守旧的中国人承认有变革的必要,那是非常不容易的。

一件事情是否可以做,对于西方来说,近代方法论早已发展起来,其中之一便是看能否与客观实际想吻合。而中国的方法论是“祖宗之法不可变”,到圣人经典中去寻找依据。因此,在最初“妄自尊大、因循守旧、盲目排外”的社会里,林则徐和魏源等人的军事变革思想很难得到社会的认同。“师夷长技以制夷”被认为是“用夷变夏”或“以夷变夏”,威胁了中国的政治安全和文化安全,遭到士大夫阶层的强烈抨击。

责任编辑:张海潮 CM013
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