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古代师徒关系:既有不成文规矩,也有行规手册

2016-11-07 10:01:20   

明代织造业行会规定了徒工制度,但是仍然倡导手工技艺尽量要父传子继:“不论店问工司,就地父传子业,亦以满师例”“子承父业,或长或嫡,以亲生一人照满师例,其余亦可向公所报名入行”。一般徒工要学徒三年,但准许亲生儿子一人免去学徒期,其余子侄学艺则与一般徒工的待遇相同。很明显,在官方和行会看来,儿子有学徒和开业上的优先权,父传子业也有着天然的正当性。

根据苏州行会规定,为了限制竞争,也为了控制技艺的传播,徒弟人数受到严格限制。通常规定,授徒每三年一期,每期一人,不许重叠招收——“每人须三年乃授一徒,盖以事此者多,恐失业者众也”。如果不遵守此规定,行会则有权予以惩罚。在苏州金箔行规定每姓只能授徒一人,违规时惩罚也非常严酷。

在石湾,根据陶艺工会行业规定,学徒未入行前,只能从事最为粗笨的基础工作。工资只有入行师傅的几分之一。各行制陶技术也规定只传男不传女。女工只能做少数的日用器皿。各行会从业人员要缴纳“行金”才能入行。光绪年间,入行的行金分为三种:第一种是父传子。凡父亲已入行,儿子(必须要有血缘关系)要入行的,交入行费9元白银,分三年交清;第二种是兄教弟,兄已入行的,弟要交入行费18元白银,分三年交清,并要先做两年学徒;第三种是从师学艺,无父无兄在行的,要有师傅接受其入行,每季交入行费白银12元5毫,学徒期长至6年。

不过,行会同时也规定,一旦确立了师徒关系,师傅则必须尽力传授技艺。学徒期满离开师傅独自开业时师傅赠送一套工具,师傅去世后徒弟要准备孝衣,并以孝道待之。但是,许多师傅仍然藏着一手“绝技”不肯传给徒弟。所谓绝技,有时就是“秘不外传、难免断绝”的意思。例如制笔业中的金陵陆继翁、王自用,吉水的郑伯清,吴锡的张天锡,杭州的张文贵等都有绝技,所制毛笔各有特色,却因“不妄传人”而“惜乎近俱传失其妙”。制陶业中的宜兴陶家对陶土的“取舍、配合各有心法,秘不相授”;彝鼎业中的松江胡文明能“按古式制彝、鼎、尊、卣之类,极精,价亦甚高,誓不传他姓”。于是,这些传统技艺便大多失传而绝。

今天传承下来的很多技艺,都是学徒偷师而来。清末广州制革业中的熟皮配料是关键技术,由师傅掌握,配料时在小房内操作,有时还把窗帘拉住,不让徒弟看见。徒弟只能在日常帮师傅做活时用心观察,对关键技艺还不能随便打问,全靠心领神会。或者,师傅在晚年或临终前才单传给最可靠的弟子。明代有一位著名建筑师名叫冯巧,从万历到崇祯,所有宫殿他都参与设计。他直到老年,仍孤身一人。学徒董九“往执役门下,数载不得其传。而服侍左右,不懈益恭”,终于感动了冯巧,“一日,九独侍巧,顾曰:子可教矣!于是尽传其奥”。董九等了几十年才最终学到了手艺。

不过,这种防范式传授也容易导致技艺失传。景德镇魏家的砌窑技术后来也授徒,据说,由于过于保守技术秘密,最后只剩下两个老师傅和两个徒弟。徒弟还没学会技术,两个师傅就死了,技术就失传了。可见在古代,工匠师徒之间,往往是一种博弈加防范的过程,多数情况下,只有家族继承或者家族式师徒中最亲密的徒弟,才能得到师傅真正的手艺。恰恰是手艺的难得,使得徒弟与师傅的感情更加复杂——这复杂里,既有利益,又有人性,更有着千百年来中华文化的影子。

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