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古代师徒关系:既有不成文规矩,也有行规手册

2016-11-07 10:01:20   

□林海

在中国古代,行业内的师徒关系既有不成文的规矩惯例,也有明确载录的行规手册,甚至还有些作为附录被记入了官方的法典。

许多行业技能的传授,是通过家族式的经营与训练。故古语称:“家其专业,以求利者。”为了防止技术外传,通常传男不传女,以防女儿出嫁后导致技术外流。将专门技艺作为家产传给子孙的习俗,甚至得到了官方的认同和保护。

《考工记》上说:“巧者述之守之,世谓之工”,并注:“父子世以相教也”。《国语·齐语》还解释了世传技艺的好处在于:“其父兄之教,不肃而成;其子弟之学,不劳而能。夫是,则工之子恒为工”。耳濡目染,教者省力,学者亦快,结果便形成了《荀子·儒效》上说的“工匠之子,莫不继事”的传统做法。

从官方的角度来看,也是以家庭为单位来管理工匠。《魏书·刑罚志》说“其百工伎巧,驺卒子息,当习其父兄所业”。唐宋之后,匠户、灶户等“百工”开始纳入“匠籍”管理。元明两代,手工业者一律编入匠籍,隶属于官府,以轮班方式国家服役。当时的户籍制度分为民、军、匠三等。从法律地位上说,一世为匠,手艺和义务都世代承袭,不许私自分户,不得脱籍改业(据《明会典·工匠二》)。

因此,无论是官方还是民间,主要是采取亲子传承的方式来发展手工艺技术。但是,有的师傅没有子嗣,或者生意扩大,需要雇佣学徒帮工,才出现了师徒之制。在这个意义上,师徒制是一种对于父子传承制的拟制,在习惯法上难免延伸使用家族之治的理念。对于作为外姓的徒弟而言,师傅如果愿意倾囊相授,是十分可贵的。师傅如果不愿传授核心机密,为防“教会徒弟,饿死师傅”,也并非不可理解。

随着匠籍制度的瓦解和师徒制度的发展,越来越多徒弟在学成之后,开始自立门户。正如民间所言“一技在手,走遍天下”。但是,从行业发展的角度看,如果“教会徒弟,饿死师傅”成为常态,那么再不会有师傅愿意教授徒弟技艺,技术传承和行业发展势必受到影响。因此,师傅在选徒和教徒时,在意志力、人品、能力等各方面都会严格要求徒弟,很多时候甚至于百般挑剔,使徒弟过着如履薄冰一般的生活。同时,他们也非常重视培养弟子的封建宗法观念,从思想上使弟子对自己终生感恩。

其实,这种师徒之制,早在很早的时候就在道德层面进行了规定。《管子·弟子职》规定:“先生将食,弟子馔馈。摄衽盥漱,跪坐而馈;先生有命。弟子乃食”“先生将息,弟子皆起。敬奉枕席,问所何趾”“先生既息,各就其友;相切相磋,各长其仪”。但作为行会、公所的行规加以规范,是迟至明清时期才有。

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