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怎样“讲”权利

2017-08-16 04:27:02   中国青年网

□ 刘星

人人都说,古人法律文化的“习惯”是不大重视权利,只喜欢安排义务,讲得学问一点,就是“义务本位”。

这对古人可能不太公允。一方面,仔细打量,古人时有时断地讲了一些权利;另一方面,也可发觉,如果把所有的义务规定都看作是对相应的权利的保护,那么,还可以得出义务越多则权利越多的结论。事物对立,相互依赖。像不得盗窃、借钱要还之类的义务,就是保护一般人的权利。不得伤人、砸屋、骗婚、卖国、毁林等,也是保护他者的权利。因此,就算喜好安排义务,那也是打侧面来讲权利。

于是,古人问题的要害,也许不是直接规定义务或权利的多少,而是怎样“讲”权利。

战国那阵儿,有个名人叫慎到。专家们喜好把他列入“法家”一族。此人形象生动地用兔子的例子,把权利的一种说法讲得清楚透彻。他先提出一个问题:当一只兔子在野地里奔跑,为啥后面会有百来号人拼命追捕,争先恐后,而在集市上,也有成群成堆的兔子,人就不追了,有的人甚至连一眼都不看,闭目养神儿?慎到说,这可并非因为在前一场合人人都想要兔子,后一场合,人人心思就变了;而是因为,在野地里,法律没说兔子的“归属所有”,没提兔子“姓谁”,当然个个想要“捷足先登”,而在集市上,法律已明说了兔子有主,所以看一眼恐怕都是浪费精力。

后来的商鞅(秦国的变法主角),还嫌慎到所讲不够全面,加上一句:如果法律不讲兔子是谁的,像尧、舜、禹、汤这样的圣人,照样追着兔子跑,甚至彼此厮杀、暗下过招儿。

当然,慎到和商鞅都一致地认为,法律首先要“定分止争”。“定分”,用今天语汇来解释,就是确定一个所有权,说清这是谁的、那是谁的。确定了所有权,即便是野地,照旧没人争兔子了。而所有权就是一种权利。

讲法律要定分止争,等于是讲法律要确定一个权利。反过来看,权利就来自法律的规定了。没有法律,也就没有权利可言。在这里,我们当然是拿“法律”来指国家的法律,亦即国法。在某种程度上,古人正是从兔子的所有权基于法律规定亦即国法规定那类解说中,想到各种权利是从何而来的。虽说,那阵儿没有“权利”的词汇。

这和洋人就不一样了。

要是让洋人来讲“兔子的所有权”,他们会说:不论在野地里,还是在集市上,并非要靠国法规定才能确定兔子归谁所有,在没有国法之前,根据人的理性和自然正义,就能确定权利是谁的,国法只不过是把原有的“权利归属”再正式地说一遍而已,着点笔墨,清楚一下,没啥大不了的。

听起来,洋人的讲法似乎玄了一点,哪有国法不规定就能说清兔子是谁的?可是,洋人非要将自然的权利和国法规定的权利分开讲,而且要说有些权利(当然包括所有权)就是自然的、天赋的,是国法规定的依据,而不是国法规定的结果,谋“法”在人,成“权”在天。洋人真是另有所好。

其实,怎样“讲”权利,暗中都涉及一个潜意识:怎样看待政府制定法律的权力。如果讲没有国法就没有权利,便是以为政府权力决定了权利。反之,如果讲没有国法也可以有权利,便是以为政府并不能决定一切权利,而且,政府的权力可能还是自然权利授予的。

这是一个非常重要的权利观念的出发点。

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