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联合国气候大会:温度上升可能导致近25万人死亡

2016-11-13 09:49:11   

早期经济全球化:导致东亚政治军事局势剧变的主要推手

我们置身的现代世界始于1492年,对于研究全球史某一特定年代的历史学家来说,1492年是很显而易见的选择,但实情是这一年却反常地遭到忽略。说到1492年,最常有的联想是哥伦布在这一年发现了前往美洲的路线,这可以说是改变世界的重大事件。

从此以后,旧世界得以跟新世界接触,把过去分立的文明结合在一起,使名副其实的全球历史和“世界体系”成为可能,各地发生的事件都在一个互相连结的世界里共振共鸣,思想和贸易引发的效应越过重洋,就像蝴蝶拍动翅膀扰动了空气。欧洲的帝国主义就此展开,进一步重新打造全世界。

美洲加入了西方世界的版图,大幅增加了西方文明的资源,也使得亚洲称霸已久的帝国和经济体系走向衰颓。十六世纪和十七世纪,东亚国际贸易飞速增长,在其中,中国占据了最重要的地位。

经济全球化把全世界联系得很紧密,人员交流、商贸往来频繁造成的一个必然后果就是知识、技术的传播变得很快,恰在此时,爆发了火药革命。火器的发展经历了不同的阶段,最早是中国发明的火门枪,传到欧洲改进为火绳枪,又发展成燧发枪,火炮则从青铜炮变为铁炮,其传播路径是由中国经伊斯兰教世界传到西欧又反过来传回东亚。

中国自秦始皇以来传统的威胁都是来自北方,匈奴、鲜卑、突厥、回鹘等,包括后来的蒙古。一直到明朝,蒙古还是最大的威胁。但经济全球化带来的知识、技术的传播导致新兴的东亚地区强权的出现,安南、缅甸、日本以及葡萄牙、西班牙、荷兰等西方殖民者,还有后金,威胁着中国的安全。

十六、十七世纪,安南以从葡萄牙、西班牙和荷兰的沉船中打捞起来枪炮作为样式,并雇佣欧洲枪炮铸造工匠,使安南能够获得欧洲火器的新技术,并用于火器制造。

十七世纪初,缅甸人从葡萄牙人手中夺取了沙廉(Syriam,今缅甸半岛部分)后,残存的欧洲俘虏及其后代成为缅甸军中火器部队的骨干。除外籍火器手,缅甸人也建立了自己的火器部队,莽应龙时,火枪与火炮已成功地融入缅甸步兵和战象的单位中。

日本学习了葡萄牙人的火枪技术,不断仿造和改进,十六世纪末时路上火器之精良和应用之普遍,已经超过英、法等西欧先进国家。织田信长在著名的长筱之役(1575)中能够彻底击溃武田胜赖,即是主要得力于埋伏在河边的上万名火枪手。

明朝也积极引进各种火器,学习仿造荷兰人的红夷大炮,万历年间,明军与首次来到广东沿海的荷兰武装船只发生海上冲突,便见识了红夷炮的威力。

火器的传播影响巨大,恩格斯强调,从装刺刀的枪起到后装枪止的现代作战方法,在这种方法中,决定事态的不是执马刀的人,而是武器。而军事史学家富勒认为,火药的使用,使所有人变得一样高,战争平等化了。


台湾中央图书馆藏崇祯十六年《火攻挈要》

在这样的情况下,中国周边的政权纷纷挑衅中国,烽烟四起的晚明东亚世界发生了四起大的战事:西南中缅边境战争(1576-1606)、东方中日朝鲜战争(1592-1598)、东北明清辽东战争(1616-1644)和东南中荷台海战争(1633-1662)。

明朝要应付周边战事,国防开支不断增加,从嘉靖十年(1531)到万历三十年(1602)间,13个边镇的官军数从37.1万人增加到61.9万人,再增至68.6万人,每年所编列的银两数量从336万余两暴增至827万余两,是万历六年太仓银库每年收入367万余两的2.25倍,把明代从张居正时代攒起来的积存全用完了,而到了崇祯元年,各边欠饷已达520余万两。

另外,经济全球化使得明朝与世界经济,特别是世界货币体系一体化日益加深。李伯重指出,白银输入的起落变化以及对于明代中国经济、社会、政治的影响是直接导致了明朝的覆亡还是只是其中的一个因素,目前学界还存在争论。


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