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清朝靠什么打江山 坐天下:八旗制度兴衰始末

2016-06-21 14:44:06   时代周报

晚清驻守广州的八旗兵。

“隐然有虎豹在山之势”

驻防八旗有两个特点,历来未被史家关注,却是理解八旗制度入关后对清朝统治所起作用的最重要因素。

其一,清朝统治者虽然在实质上,对强化八旗驻防的镇压作用始终未曾放松,但做法上却竭力让八旗退居幕后。无论驻防何处,八旗官兵都集中居住,自建“满城”或“满营”,从不与民人混居,亦从不轻易出动,地方上若有治安问题和骚动,都由绿营出面处理,令他们充当恶人角色。但一旦出现重大事件,则可就近出兵。雍正帝形容驻防八旗在地方为“隐然有虎豹在山之势”虎视眈眈,磨刀霍霍,却让人不知不觉,这是满族统治者处理政治问题和民族关系的手段日趋成熟的表现。至于如今人们多认为八旗入关后作用越来越微弱,其实正是清廷制造的假象,是他们刻意要达到的效果。

其二,驻防八旗事实上包括了两部分,一部分为直省驻防体系,位于中原各省和长城沿线,与京旗一样,依靠朝廷的钱粮为生,以当兵挑甲为生活的唯一来源。另一部分是东北三省和内蒙古等地区的旗丁,他们直到清朝中期,仍然保持着亦兵亦民的传统,对旗饷的依赖远远少于关内旗人。而站在前台的,却始终是驻守于江宁、杭州、西安等繁华省会的旗兵,以为他们就是驻防八旗的全部,他们的贪恋享受、懒散无能,也就意味着八旗劲旅战斗力的衰退。最有代表性的,就是《清史稿》对清代兵制的变化所作的评述,见卷一百三十《兵志》:

太宗征藩部,世祖定中原,八旗兵力最强。圣祖平南服,世宗征青海,高宗定西疆,以旗兵为主,而辅之以绿营。仁宗剿教匪,宣宗御外寇,兼用防军,而以乡兵助之。文宗、穆宗先后平粤、捻,湘军初起,淮军继之,而练勇之功始着,至是兵制盖数变矣。……以兵兴者,终以兵败。呜呼,岂非天哉!

如今学界的说法多来源于此并予以引伸,使之几乎成为公论,那就是八旗兵力早在康熙朝平三藩时即已开始衰落,代之而起的是绿营,太平天国之后绿营又被新兴起的湘军、淮军代替。但事实上,很多人并没有准确理解和引述这段话,因为至少字面上看,他们忽视了《清史稿》所谓的绿营、乡兵甚至湘军淮军,起到的还是“辅之”、“助之”的作用,事实上从全局来看,主力还是八旗。只不过这支作为八旗主力的劲旅,始终处于后台的位置而已。

这里所谓的后台,是与位于前台的京旗以及直省驻防八旗相对而言的,指的就是驻防八旗中非常重要的东北三将军所辖官兵,而东北,正是清朝统治者的“龙兴之地”,是他们的大后方所在。东北三将军属下的八旗驻防和部落兵与直省的驻防八旗,是位于一个统一政权之下、存在同一军事制度即八旗驻防制度中的一个整体的两个方面,二者互相配合,互为补充。乾隆朝平定准噶尔部,在新疆设伊犁驻防,建立军府制度,奠定了如今被学界高度赞扬的“大一统”的基础,凭借的主要兵力,就是从东北调拨的索伦兵、锡伯兵,以及从宣外一带调拨的游牧察哈尔兵。

八旗武力的衰落

八旗衰落与清朝统治的衰落同步。清朝19世纪出现统治危机,其中一个明显表现,就是兵力的衰落,这种衰落又以八旗武力的衰退为主要标志。八旗武力衰落的原因不能仅仅以“腐败”来一言蔽之,它背后牵涉到的问题复杂而深刻。谈19世纪危机而不谈军事,谈军事而只谈湘军、淮军却不谈作为清朝统治“根本”的八旗武力的衰微,就找不到症结所在。

危机的根源,在于无论统治者如何粉饰,八旗制度毕竟是建立在民族统治、民族压迫的基础之上的。不管嘴上怎么高喊“满汉一家”,在做法上,“首崇满洲”才是他们的宗旨。这首先就表现在旗饷制度建立后产生的负面作用上。

入关后建立的旗饷制度,断绝了旗人务农经商等其他谋生来源,日久遂成为一个完全信赖朝廷豢养为生的寄生阶层。清中叶以后政府有限的财力又无法供养日趋繁衍的八旗人口,从而产生了清朝特有的“八旗生计”问题。它首先出现于京师,然后波及内地各省驻防,最后危及边疆,严重动摇了八旗这一“根本”的根基。清廷解决这一危机的方式,是一批批地将占据食饷份额的开户人、汉军旗人排除出八旗,以保证满洲旗人的生计,最突出的一项举措,就是乾隆朝将八旗内的开户人、另记档案人和八旗汉军等非满洲成分“出旗为民”,直接导致了八旗驻防武力的衰退。成为八旗驻防由盛而衰的转折点。

第二,乾隆朝之后清朝统治地域越来越广,对西北的征服和建立驻防将军,耗费大量额兵和财力。清廷因此而在直省诸处驻防大量裁减兵员,拿这些兵数与饷银,从东北等地调遣大批少数民族部落兵。由于这些部落兵都属半粮半饷,一名直省驻防马甲的钱粮可以供养两名少数民族兵丁,在当时确是成功划算之举,但对于直省诸处驻防兵力的损伤,到太平天国起事时便凸显出来。

第三,出于一系列民族歧视政策以及自康熙以来就认为绿营不足恃的思想,清廷对于绿营这支军事力量始终缺乏充分的信任。自雍正朝开始,清廷即将八旗驻防中的大量汉军出旗,挑补当地绿营额缺;乾嘉以后绿营兵缺更逐步向八旗开放。八旗官兵挤占绿营兵缺,是八旗将自身危机转嫁到绿营身上的反映,结果一是导致两支经制兵的离心离德,一是八旗中被裁汰的兵丁搀入绿营,导致绿营风气的进一步败坏,最终使绿营兵力更加衰微、不堪使用。

从上述三点分析可知,直省八旗驻防是清朝八旗兵力中最薄弱的一个环节,却又在太平天国事件中首当其冲,损失极为惨重。杭州、江宁和河北沧州等处驻防均遭覆灭,其他诸处也因损失兵力过半而大大削弱。清朝武功,也正是由直省八旗最先被打开的一个缺口,尽管因北部边疆的部落兵的入关挽救于一时,但当清廷不得不将大量财力物力投入江南等地与太平天国等势力对抗的时候,对于西北边疆的无暇它顾,也最终导致无可挽救的败局。所谓牵一发而动全身,八旗军事力量受到的致命打击,正是19世纪中国出现统治危机的直接反映。而八旗制度的解体之日,也是清朝的灭亡之时,二者如影随形。

作者系中国社会科学院历史研究所研究员

责任编辑:张海潮 CM013
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