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民粹主义的前世今生
2017-08-14 05:23:08 中国青年网
近年来,随着互联网的发展,网络舆情汹涌,其所引发的各种网络暴力和群体性事件,使得民粹主义的话题悄然成为理论界和坊间热议的焦点问题。人民论坛问卷调查中心从2010年开始连续五年推出的年度最受关注的十大思潮调查评选结果显示,民粹主义的排名呈逐年上升趋势,到2014年已经跃居第四。该调查中心在2012年还进行了一项关于中国公众民粹化倾向的调查,结果有49.5%的受访者具有民粹化特征,其中的31.3%属于民粹特征显著群体。而最近几年自媒体的发展,更是给狂热的网络民粹主义火上加油,民粹主义在互联网时代的发展有了燎原之势。
什么是民粹主义?民粹主义的概念在学术界历来众说纷纭。我国著名政治学者俞可平的界定比较到位:“作为一种社会思潮,民粹主义强调平民群众的价值和理想,反对精英主义,把平民化和大众化作为所有政治运动和政治制度合法性的最终来源,以此来评判社会历史的发展;作为一种政治运动,民粹主义主张依靠平民大众对社会进行激进改革,并把普通群众当作政治改革的唯一决定性力量;作为一种政治策略,它指的是动员平民大众参与政治进程的方式,强调诸如平民的统一,全民公决,人民的创制权等民粹主义价值,从而对平民大众从整体上实施有效的控制和操纵。”因此,简单地说,民粹主义指的是一种极端的平民主义、大众主义,它极端强调平民大众的价值和利益,反对精英政治,将平民化和大众化作为一切政治活动的落脚点。民粹主义这种底层社会的集体意识,具有极端的反智主义倾向,例如文革时的“知识越多越反动”,现在社会上流行的把教授、专家丑化为“叫兽、砖家”,都是民粹主义反智的表现。同时,民粹主义还具有强烈的“仇官”和“仇富”倾向,也就是仇视权力精英和财富精英。
很多文献追述民粹主义的来源时,认为它发源于19世纪下半叶俄国农奴运动,其实这里有很大的误区。可以说民粹主义一直就存在,因为只要有平民大众,就有民粹主义产生的土壤。2000多年前的柏拉图在《理想国》中就对平民政治(希腊直接民主制度)做过至今仍然发人深省的分析,他认为平民政治因其无节制和非理性往往会导向多数人的暴政,他把平民政治描述为暴民政治,实际指的就是民粹主义。自此,西方政治理论对民主政治一直抱有很大的偏见,直到欧洲启蒙运动以后,才开始有所改观。
其实,民主和民粹是近亲关系,民主转成民粹往往只有一步之遥,很多时候更是相互混淆。西方近现代民主是在人权理论发展基础上慢慢步入正轨的,民主是人民主权、多数人统治(但必须以保护少数人的权利为前提),因此现代民主是在宪法和法律的框架下理性有序的政治参与和政治决策机制。民粹主义则是一种民众非理性的政治参与,或者是一种非制度性参与,往往破坏法治和正常的社会秩序,践踏人权。正因为民主和民粹很容易混淆,在现实政治中,一些阴谋家往往会把民粹说成民主,煽动民粹主义,以达到不可告人的政治目的,给国家和社会带来了严重的灾难,如法国大革命时期雅各宾派的暴政、希特勒的纳粹暴行等。而一些专制独裁者则常常把正常的民主参与说成是民粹主义,对社会舆论进行限制,以堵塞正常的民主参与渠道。
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