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从“量入为出”到“量出为入”:清代财政思想的转变
2017-08-07 04:31:32 中国青年网
以“量入为出”为财政原则,财政手段必然以节流为主;以“量出为入”为财政原则,财政手段则会以开源为主。由于儒家思想的影响,“量入为出”的财政原则一直为历代王朝所遵从,居于主导地位;与之相对应的“量出为入”,则被视为苛政。
清军入关,统一全国后,仍然坚持“量入为出”的原则。在这一财政思想指导之下,清前期的财政收入主要来自于常例,尤其是田赋、漕粮、盐课和关税。由于每年常例收入的来源和数额都基本固定,政府可以根据常例收入的规模来安排常例支出,其总额通常小于定制的常例收入总额,由此保证了清前期的长期财政盈余。连年的巨额盈余,使得户部的存银越来越多,乾隆四十二年(1777年),户部的存银更是多达8182万余两。如果遇到突发事件,如大规模战争、严重自然灾害,政府除动用历年的财政盈余外,还可以通过捐纳、报效等非常例收入,来应付非常例支出。萧一山在《清代通史》中说,雍正年间“虽屡次用兵,而经费不虞匮乏,并得积蓄二千四百余万之巨款”。清前期之所以能够出现中国历史上蔚为大观的“康乾盛世”,当与“量入为出”的财政思想有着密切关系。
嘉庆、道光时期,清廷仍然固守“量入为出”的原则,并以“轻徭薄赋”为仁政美德。其实,当时清廷对全国财政的控制能力已降至极低的水平,即便有巨额的支出,如军需、河工及赈济等,也仍然凭临时的调补来支持,而无长期的综合考虑。张集馨在《道咸宦海见闻录》一书中记载,道光帝甚至宣称:“譬如人家一所大房子,年深月久,不是东边倒塌,即是西边剥落,住房人随时粘补修理,自然一律整齐,若任听破坏,必至要动大工。”应该说,嘉道时期政府在财政上的最大问题是,当岁出突然增大时,其岁入不足以应付这种开支,所以不得不采用临时性的筹措财政经费的方法(捐输和报效),新的改变已经迫在眉睫。
咸丰、同治时期,随着太平天国起义的发生,清朝的财政支出急剧增加,而常例收入的数量却非常有限,甚至每况愈下,导致“量入为出”在实际操作层面已无可能,只能开始向“量出为入”转变。由于收支形势的突然逆转,户部最初只能遵行旧有思路,坚持节流省费,以求平衡。咸丰元年(1851年),户部奏称:“自古理财之道,不外开源节流二端。开源之道必须有利无弊,或弊少利多者方可举行。臣等旦夕思维,未有良法可裨经费。惟节流之道臣等随事讲求,有以节制。”这一时期虽然还能经常在诏书中看到对“量入为出”思想的强调,但由于财政开支不敷,导致清廷多采用指拨等变通方式,将非常例收入如厘金、捐纳纳入收入范畴,“变通办理”。同治十二年(1873年),内务府即奏称,内务府之广储司银库“一年进款用款,通盘核计,详细比较,例内尚无靡费,实因例外各款递有加增,量入为出实不敷用”。于此,旧有的常例与非常例收支明确划分的办法被抛弃,“量入为出”徒具空壳。
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